Kuwunika kwa maphunziro ndi luso ndikofunikira kwa mabungwe onse amaphunziro apamwamba, kuphatikiza masukulu azachipatala.Kuwunika kwa ophunzira pamaphunziro (SET) nthawi zambiri kumatenga mawonekedwe a mafunso osadziwika, ndipo ngakhale kuti adapangidwa kuti awunikire maphunziro ndi mapulogalamu, m'kupita kwanthawi akhala akugwiritsidwanso ntchito kuyeza momwe uphunzitsi umagwirira ntchito ndipo kenako amapanga zisankho zofunika zokhudzana ndi kuphunzitsa.Kukula kwaukadaulo kwa aphunzitsi.Komabe, zinthu zina ndi kukondera kungakhudze kuchuluka kwa SET ndipo ukadaulo wophunzitsa sungathe kuyesedwa moyenera.Ngakhale kuti mabuku okhudzana ndi maphunziro ndi maphunziro apamwamba amakhazikitsidwa bwino, pali nkhawa zokhudzana ndi kugwiritsa ntchito zida zomwezo poyesa maphunziro ndi mphamvu zamapulogalamu azachipatala.Makamaka, SET mu maphunziro apamwamba sangathe kugwiritsidwa ntchito mwachindunji pakupanga ndi kukhazikitsa maphunziro m'masukulu azachipatala.Ndemanga iyi imapereka chithunzithunzi cha momwe SET ingasinthire pazida, kasamalidwe, ndi kutanthauzira.Kuonjezera apo, nkhaniyi ikuwonetsa kuti pogwiritsa ntchito njira zosiyanasiyana monga kubwereza anzawo, magulu otsogolera, ndi kudziyesa kuti atolere ndi kusonkhanitsa deta kuchokera kuzinthu zambiri, kuphatikizapo ophunzira, anzawo, oyang'anira mapulogalamu, ndi kudzidziwitsa okha, dongosolo lonse lowunika lingathe. kumangidwa.Kuyeza mogwira mtima ntchito yophunzitsa, kuthandizira chitukuko cha akatswiri a zachipatala, ndi kupititsa patsogolo maphunziro a zachipatala.
Kuwunika kwa maphunziro ndi mapulogalamu ndi njira yoyendetsera bwino m'masukulu onse apamwamba, kuphatikiza masukulu azachipatala.Kuwunika kwa Kuphunzitsa kwa Ophunzira (SET) nthawi zambiri kumatenga mawonekedwe a pepala losadziwika kapena mafunso a pa intaneti pogwiritsa ntchito sikelo monga Likert sikelo (nthawi zambiri zisanu, zisanu ndi ziwiri kapena kupitilira apo) zomwe zimalola anthu kuwonetsa kuvomereza kwawo kapena kuvomereza kwawo.Sindikugwirizana ndi ziganizo zenizeni) [1,2,3].Ngakhale kuti ma SET adapangidwa poyambirira kuti awunikire maphunziro ndi mapulogalamu, m'kupita kwanthawi akhala akugwiritsidwanso ntchito kuyeza kuchita bwino kwa kuphunzitsa [4, 5, 6].Kuchita bwino kwa kuphunzitsa kumawonedwa kukhala kofunika chifukwa kumaganiziridwa kuti pali ubale wabwino pakati pa kuchita bwino kwa kuphunzitsa ndi kuphunzira kwa ophunzira [7].Ngakhale kuti zolembazo sizimatanthawuza momveka bwino momwe maphunziro amathandizira, nthawi zambiri amatchulidwa kudzera muzochita zapadera za maphunziro, monga "kuyanjana kwamagulu", "kukonzekera ndi bungwe", "ndemanga kwa ophunzira" [8].
Chidziwitso chopezedwa kuchokera ku SET chingapereke chidziŵitso chothandiza, monga ngati pakufunika kusintha zinthu zophunzitsira kapena njira zophunzitsira zogwiritsiridwa ntchito m’kosi inayake.SET imagwiritsidwanso ntchito kupanga zisankho zofunika zokhudzana ndi chitukuko cha akatswiri [4,5,6].Komabe, kuyenera kwa njirayi ndi kokayikitsa pamene mabungwe a maphunziro apamwamba amapanga zisankho zokhudzana ndi luso, monga kupititsa patsogolo maphunziro apamwamba (nthawi zambiri amagwirizana ndi akuluakulu ndi kuwonjezeka kwa malipiro) ndi maudindo akuluakulu oyang'anira mkati mwa bungwe [4, 9].Kuphatikiza apo, mabungwe nthawi zambiri amafunikira aphunzitsi atsopano kuti aphatikize ma SET ochokera kumabungwe am'mbuyomu pofunsira maudindo atsopano, potero amalimbikitsa osati kukwezedwa kwa masukulu okha, komanso omwe angakhale olemba anzawo ntchito [10].
Ngakhale mabuku okhudza maphunziro ndi kuwunika kwa aphunzitsi amakhazikitsidwa bwino pankhani ya maphunziro apamwamba, sizili choncho pankhani ya zamankhwala ndi zaumoyo [11].Maphunziro ndi zosowa za aphunzitsi azachipatala zimasiyana ndi zamaphunziro apamwamba.Mwachitsanzo, kuphunzira kwamagulu nthawi zambiri kumagwiritsidwa ntchito m'maphunziro ophatikizana a zamankhwala.Izi zikutanthauza kuti maphunziro a sukulu ya zachipatala amakhala ndi maphunziro angapo omwe amaphunzitsidwa ndi mamembala angapo omwe ali ndi maphunziro komanso odziwa ntchito zosiyanasiyana zamankhwala.Ngakhale kuti ophunzira amapindula ndi chidziwitso chozama cha akatswiri omwe ali pansi pa dongosololi, nthawi zambiri amakumana ndi vuto losintha machitidwe osiyanasiyana a mphunzitsi aliyense [1, 12, 13, 14].
Ngakhale pali kusiyana pakati pa maphunziro apamwamba wamba ndi maphunziro azachipatala, SET yomwe imagwiritsidwa ntchito m'mbuyomu nthawi zina imagwiritsidwanso ntchito muzamankhwala ndi maphunziro azaumoyo.Komabe, kukhazikitsa SET m'maphunziro apamwamba kumabweretsa zovuta zambiri potengera maphunziro komanso kuwunika kwa akatswiri pamapulogalamu azachipatala [11].Makamaka, chifukwa cha kusiyana kwa njira zophunzitsira ndi ziyeneretso za aphunzitsi, zotsatira zowunika maphunziro sizingaphatikizepo malingaliro a ophunzira a aphunzitsi onse kapena makalasi.Kafukufuku wa Uytenhaage and O'Neill (2015) [5] akusonyeza kuti kupempha ophunzira kuti ayese aphunzitsi onse payekha pamapeto a maphunziro kungakhale kosayenera chifukwa n'kosatheka kuti ophunzira akumbukire ndi kuyankhapo pa mavoti angapo a aphunzitsi.magulu.Kuphatikiza apo, aphunzitsi ambiri azachipatala ndi madokotala omwe kuphunzitsa ndi gawo laling'ono chabe la maudindo awo [15, 16].Chifukwa chakuti iwo makamaka amatanganidwa ndi chisamaliro cha odwala ndipo, nthaŵi zambiri, kufufuza, kaŵirikaŵiri amakhala ndi nthaŵi yochepa yokulitsa luso lawo la kuphunzitsa.Komabe, madokotala monga aphunzitsi ayenera kulandira nthawi, chithandizo, ndi ndemanga zolimbikitsa kuchokera ku mabungwe awo [16].
Ophunzira azachipatala amakhala olimbikitsidwa kwambiri komanso olimbikira ntchito omwe amaloledwa bwino kusukulu ya zamankhwala (kudzera m'mpikisano komanso wovuta padziko lonse lapansi).Kuphatikiza apo, pasukulu ya zamankhwala, ophunzira azachipatala akuyembekezeka kukhala ndi chidziwitso chochulukirapo ndikukulitsa luso lambiri pakanthawi kochepa, komanso kuti apambane pamayesero ovuta amkati komanso omveka bwino a dziko [17,18,19] , 20].Chifukwa chake, chifukwa cha miyezo yapamwamba yoyembekezeredwa kwa ophunzira azachipatala, ophunzira azachipatala akhoza kukhala ovuta kwambiri ndipo amakhala ndi chiyembekezo chapamwamba cha kuphunzitsa kwapamwamba kuposa ophunzira amaphunziro ena.Choncho, ophunzira azachipatala akhoza kukhala ndi mavoti otsika kuchokera kwa aphunzitsi awo poyerekeza ndi ophunzira a maphunziro ena pazifukwa zomwe zatchulidwa pamwambapa.Chosangalatsa ndichakuti, maphunziro am'mbuyomu awonetsa ubale wabwino pakati pa zolimbikitsa za ophunzira ndi kuwunika kwa mphunzitsi aliyense [21].Kuphatikiza apo, pazaka 20 zapitazi, maphunziro ambiri asukulu zachipatala padziko lonse lapansi aphatikizidwa [22], kotero kuti ophunzira amakumana ndi zochitika zachipatala kuyambira zaka zoyambirira za pulogalamu yawo.Chifukwa chake, pazaka zingapo zapitazi, madokotala akhala akutenga nawo gawo kwambiri pamaphunziro a ophunzira azachipatala, kuvomereza, ngakhale koyambirira kwamapulogalamu awo, kufunikira kopanga ma SET ogwirizana ndi magulu enaake [22].
Chifukwa cha maphunziro azachipatala omwe tawatchula pamwambapa, ma SET omwe amagwiritsidwa ntchito poyesa maphunziro apamwamba omwe amaphunzitsidwa ndi membala wasukulu imodzi ayenera kusinthidwa kuti ayese maphunziro ophatikizika ndi gulu lachipatala la mapulogalamu azachipatala [14].Chifukwa chake, pakufunika kupanga zitsanzo za SET zogwira mtima kwambiri komanso njira zowunikira zowunikira kuti mugwiritse ntchito bwino pamaphunziro azachipatala.
Ndemanga yamakono ikufotokoza za kupita patsogolo kwaposachedwa pakugwiritsa ntchito SET mu maphunziro apamwamba (akuluakulu) ndi zofooka zake, ndiyeno kufotokoza zosowa zosiyanasiyana za SET pa maphunziro a zachipatala ndi aphunzitsi.Ndemangayi imapereka ndondomeko ya momwe SET ingasinthire pazida, kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe kake. khalidwe la kuphunzitsa mu maphunziro azachipatala.
Phunziroli likutsatira kafukufuku wa Green et al.(2006) [23] kwa upangiri ndi Baumeister (2013) [24] kuti alandire upangiri wolemba ndemanga zofotokozera.Tidaganiza zolemba ndemanga yofotokozera pamutuwu chifukwa kuwunikiridwa kwamtunduwu kumathandizira kupereka malingaliro ambiri pamutuwu.Komanso, chifukwa ndemanga zofotokozera zimatengera maphunziro osiyanasiyana, zimathandiza kuyankha mafunso ambiri.Kuonjezera apo, ndemanga zofotokozera zingathandize kulimbikitsa malingaliro ndi kukambirana pamutu.
Kodi SET imagwiritsidwa ntchito bwanji pamaphunziro azachipatala komanso zovuta zotani poyerekeza ndi SET yomwe imagwiritsidwa ntchito pamaphunziro apamwamba,
Zosungirako za Pubmed ndi ERIC zidafufuzidwa pogwiritsa ntchito mawu osakasaka akuti "kuwunika kwa kuphunzitsa kwa ophunzira," "kupambana pakuphunzitsa," "maphunziro azachipatala," "maphunziro apamwamba," "kuwunika kwamaphunziro ndi luso," komanso kwa Peer Review 2000, ogwira ntchito momveka bwino. .nkhani zofalitsidwa pakati pa 2021 ndi 2021. Njira zophatikizira: Maphunziro ophatikizidwa anali maphunziro oyambirira kapena zolemba zowunikira, ndipo maphunzirowa anali ogwirizana ndi madera a mafunso atatu akuluakulu ofufuza.Zosankha zochotsera: Maphunziro omwe sanali chilankhulo cha Chingerezi kapena maphunziro omwe nkhani zolembedwa zonse sizinapezeke kapena sizinali zogwirizana ndi mafunso atatu akuluakulu ofufuza adachotsedwa mu chikalata chowunikira.Pambuyo posankha zofalitsa, adakonzedwa m'mitu yotsatirayi ndi mitu yochepa yogwirizana nayo: (a) Kugwiritsa ntchito SET mu maphunziro apamwamba apamwamba ndi zofooka zake, (b) Kugwiritsa ntchito SET mu maphunziro a zachipatala ndi kufunikira kwake kuthetsa nkhani zokhudzana ndi kufananitsa SET (c ) Kupititsa patsogolo SET pazida, kasamalidwe ndi kutanthauzira kuti mupange zitsanzo za SET zogwira mtima.
Chithunzi 1 chimapereka ndondomeko ya zolemba zosankhidwa zomwe zikuphatikizidwa ndikukambidwa mu gawo lamakono la ndemanga.
SET yakhala ikugwiritsidwa ntchito m'maphunziro apamwamba ndipo mutuwo waphunziridwa bwino m'mabuku [10, 21].Komabe, kafukufuku wambiri wafufuza zofooka zawo zambiri komanso kuyesetsa kuthana ndi izi.
Kafukufuku akuwonetsa kuti pali zosintha zambiri zomwe zimakhudza kuchuluka kwa SET [10, 21, 25, 26].Choncho, nkofunika kuti olamulira ndi aphunzitsi amvetsetse zosinthazi pomasulira ndi kugwiritsa ntchito deta.Gawo lotsatira likufotokoza mwachidule za mitundu iyi.Chithunzi 2 chikuwonetsa zina mwazinthu zomwe zimakhudza kuchuluka kwa SET, zomwe zafotokozedwa mwatsatanetsatane m'magawo otsatirawa.
M'zaka zaposachedwa, kugwiritsa ntchito zida zapaintaneti kwawonjezeka poyerekeza ndi zida zamapepala.Komabe, umboni m'mabuku ukuwonetsa kuti SET yapaintaneti imatha kumalizidwa popanda ophunzira kupereka chidwi chofunikira pakumaliza.Mu kafukufuku wosangalatsa wa Uitdehaage ndi O'Neill [5], aphunzitsi omwe sanalipo adawonjezedwa ku SET ndipo ophunzira ambiri adapereka ndemanga [5].Komanso, umboni m'mabuku umasonyeza kuti ophunzira nthawi zambiri amakhulupirira kuti kumaliza SET sikupangitsa kuti maphunziro apite patsogolo, omwe, akaphatikizidwa ndi ndandanda yotanganidwa ya ophunzira azachipatala, angapangitse kuti anthu asayankhe bwino [27].Ngakhale kafukufuku akuwonetsa kuti malingaliro a ophunzira omwe amayesa mayeso sali osiyana ndi a gulu lonselo, kuchepa kwa mayankho otsika kungapangitsebe aphunzitsi kuti asatengere zotsatira zake mozama [28].
MaSETI ambiri pa intaneti amamalizidwa mosadziwika.Lingaliro ndilolola ophunzira kufotokoza maganizo awo momasuka popanda kulingalira kuti mawu awo angakhale ndi zotsatira pa maubwenzi awo amtsogolo ndi aphunzitsi.M'kafukufuku wa Alfonso et al. [29], ofufuza adagwiritsa ntchito mavoti osadziwika ndi mavoti momwe owerengera adayenera kupereka mayina awo (zowerengera zapagulu) kuti awone luso la kuphunzitsa kwa gulu la sukulu zachipatala ndi okhalamo komanso ophunzira azachipatala.Zotsatira zinawonetsa kuti aphunzitsi nthawi zambiri amapeza zochepa pamayeso osadziwika.Olembawo amatsutsa kuti ophunzira amakhala oona mtima pakuwunika kosadziwika chifukwa cha zopinga zina pakuwunika kotseguka, monga kuonongeka kwa maubwenzi ogwira ntchito ndi aphunzitsi omwe akutenga nawo mbali [29].Komabe, ziyenera kudziwidwanso kuti kusadziwika komwe nthawi zambiri kumalumikizidwa ndi SET yapaintaneti kungapangitse ophunzira ena kukhala opanda ulemu ndi kubwezera kwa mlangizi ngati mayeso sakukwaniritsa zomwe ophunzira amayembekezera [30].Komabe, kafukufuku akuwonetsa kuti ophunzira nthawi zambiri sapereka ndemanga zopanda ulemu, ndipo zotsirizirazi zimatha kuchepetsedwa pophunzitsa ophunzira kupereka ndemanga zolimbikitsa [30].
Kafukufuku angapo awonetsa kuti pali kulumikizana pakati pa ziwerengero za SET za ophunzira, ziyembekezo zawo zoyeserera, komanso kukhutira kwawo pamayeso [10, 21].Mwachitsanzo, Strobe (2020) [9] adanenanso kuti ophunzira amalipira maphunziro osavuta komanso aphunzitsi amalipira magiredi ofooka, zomwe zingalimbikitse kusaphunzitsa bwino ndikupangitsa kukwera kwamitengo [9].Mu kafukufuku waposachedwa, Looi et al.(2020) [31] Ofufuza anena kuti ma SET abwino kwambiri ndi ogwirizana komanso osavuta kuwunika.Komanso, pali umboni wosokoneza wakuti SET ikugwirizana mosagwirizana ndi momwe ophunzira amachitira m'maphunziro otsatirawa: kutsika kwa mlingo, kumapangitsa kuti ophunzira azichita bwino kwambiri m'makosi otsatirawa.Cornell ndi al.(2016)[32] adachita kafukufuku kuti awone ngati ophunzira aku koleji adaphunzira zambiri kuchokera kwa aphunzitsi omwe SET adawavotera kwambiri.Zotsatira zikuwonetsa kuti maphunziro akayesedwa kumapeto kwa maphunziro, aphunzitsi omwe ali ndi mavoti apamwamba amathandizanso kuti ophunzira ambiri aphunzire.Komabe, maphunziro akamayesedwa pochita bwino m’makalasi oyenerera, aphunzitsi amene amapeza bwino kwambiri ndi amene amachita bwino kwambiri.Ofufuzawo akuganiza kuti kupanga maphunziro kukhala kovuta kwambiri m'njira yopindulitsa kumachepetsa mavoti koma kumapangitsa kuphunzira.Choncho, kuwunika kwa ophunzira sikuyenera kukhala maziko okhawo owunikira chiphunzitso, koma kuzindikiridwe.
Kafukufuku wambiri akuwonetsa kuti magwiridwe antchito a SET amakhudzidwa ndi maphunziro omwewo komanso bungwe lake.Ming ndi Baozhi [33] adapeza mu kafukufuku wawo kuti panali kusiyana kwakukulu kwa masukulu a SET pakati pa ophunzira m'maphunziro osiyanasiyana.Mwachitsanzo, sayansi yachipatala imakhala ndi ma SET apamwamba kuposa sayansi yoyambira.Olembawo adalongosola kuti izi ndichifukwa choti ophunzira azachipatala ali ndi chidwi chofuna kukhala madokotala ndipo chifukwa chake amakhala ndi chidwi komanso chilimbikitso chachikulu chotenga nawo gawo mu maphunziro a sayansi ya zamankhwala poyerekeza ndi maphunziro oyambira sayansi [33].Monga momwe zimakhalira ndi ma electives, kulimbikitsa kwa ophunzira pamutuwu kumakhalanso ndi zotsatira zabwino pamiyeso [21].Maphunziro ena angapo amathandizanso mtundu wa maphunzirowo ukhoza kukhudza kuchuluka kwa SET [10, 21].
Komanso, kafukufuku wina wasonyeza kuti kalasi yaying'ono, ndipamwamba mlingo wa SET wopindula ndi aphunzitsi [10, 33].Kufotokozera kumodzi ndikuti magulu ang'onoang'ono amakulitsa mwayi wolumikizana pakati pa aphunzitsi ndi ophunzira.Kuonjezera apo, mikhalidwe yomwe kuunikaku kukuchitika kungakhudze zotsatira.Mwachitsanzo, ziwerengero za SET zimawoneka kuti zimatengera nthawi ndi tsiku lomwe maphunzirowo akuphunzitsidwa, komanso tsiku la sabata lomwe SET imamalizidwa (mwachitsanzo, kuwunika komwe kumamalizidwa kumapeto kwa sabata kumakhala ndi zotsatira zabwino) kuposa zomwe zamalizidwa. kumayambiriro kwa sabata.[10].
Kafukufuku wosangalatsa wa Hessler et al amakayikiranso magwiridwe antchito a SET.[34].Mu phunziro ili, mayesero oyendetsedwa mwachisawawa anachitika mu maphunziro achipatala mwadzidzidzi.Ophunzira azachipatala a chaka chachitatu adatumizidwa mwachisawawa ku gulu lolamulira kapena gulu lomwe limalandira ma cookies aulere a chokoleti (gulu la cookie).Magulu onse anaphunzitsidwa ndi aphunzitsi omwewo, ndipo zomwe zili mu maphunziro ndi zipangizo zamaphunziro zinali zofanana kwa magulu onse awiri.Pambuyo pa maphunzirowo, ophunzira onse adafunsidwa kuti amalize seti.Zotsatira zinawonetsa kuti gulu la cookie lidavotera aphunzitsi bwino kwambiri kuposa gulu lowongolera, ndikukayikira kugwira ntchito kwa SET [34].
Umboni womwe uli m'mabuku umathandiziranso kuti jenda likhoza kukhudza kuchuluka kwa SET [35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46].Mwachitsanzo, kafukufuku wina wasonyeza ubale pakati pa jenda ndi zotsatira za mayeso: ophunzira achikazi adapeza bwino kuposa amuna [27].Umboni wambiri umatsimikizira kuti ophunzira amawerengera aphunzitsi achikazi otsika kuposa aphunzitsi achimuna [37, 38, 39, 40].Mwachitsanzo, Boring et al.[38] adawonetsa kuti ophunzira onse aamuna ndi aakazi amakhulupirira kuti amuna ndi odziwa zambiri komanso amakhala ndi luso la utsogoleri kuposa azimayi.Mfundo yakuti jenda ndi stereotypes zimakhudza SET imathandizidwanso ndi kafukufuku wa MacNell et al.[41], yemwe adanena kuti ophunzira mu phunziro lake adavotera aphunzitsi achikazi otsika kuposa aphunzitsi achimuna pazinthu zosiyanasiyana zophunzitsira [41].Komanso, Morgan et al [42] anapereka umboni wakuti madokotala aakazi adalandira maphunziro ochepa m'magulu anayi akuluakulu (opaleshoni, ana, obereketsa ndi amayi, ndi mankhwala amkati) poyerekeza ndi madokotala achimuna.
Mu kafukufuku wa Murray et al.'s (2020) [43], ofufuzawo adanenanso kuti kukopa kwamakasitomala komanso chidwi cha ophunzira pamaphunzirowa zimalumikizidwa ndi ma SET apamwamba kwambiri.Mosiyana ndi zimenezi, zovuta za maphunziro zimagwirizanitsidwa ndi zochepa za SET.Kuphatikiza apo, ophunzira adapereka ma SET apamwamba kwambiri kwa aphunzitsi achichepere achimuna achimuna komanso kwa aphunzitsi omwe ali ndi maprofesa athunthu.Panalibe mgwirizano pakati pa kuwunika kwa kuphunzitsa kwa SET ndi zotsatira za kafukufuku wa aphunzitsi.Maphunziro ena amatsimikiziranso zotsatira zabwino za kukopa kwa aphunzitsi pazotsatira zowunika [44].
Clayson et al.(2017) [45] inanena kuti ngakhale pali mgwirizano wamba kuti SET imapanga zotsatira zodalirika komanso kuti mawerengedwe a m'kalasi ndi aphunzitsi ndi ofanana, kusagwirizana kulipobe pamayankho a wophunzira aliyense.Mwachidule, zotsatira za lipoti lowunika izi zikuwonetsa kuti ophunzira sanagwirizane ndi zomwe adafunsidwa kuti awunike.Njira zodalirika zomwe zimachokera ku kuwunika kwa ophunzira pamaphunziro ndizosakwanira kupereka maziko otsimikizira kulondola.Chifukwa chake, SET nthawi zina imatha kupereka zambiri za ophunzira osati aphunzitsi.
Maphunziro a zaumoyo SET amasiyana ndi ma SET achikhalidwe, koma aphunzitsi nthawi zambiri amagwiritsa ntchito SET yomwe ilipo m'maphunziro apamwamba apamwamba m'malo mwa SET yokhudzana ndi mapulogalamu a zaumoyo omwe amalembedwa m'mabuku.Komabe, kafukufuku amene anachitika kwa zaka zambiri apeza mavuto angapo.
Jones et al (1994).[46] adachita kafukufuku kuti adziwe funso la momwe angayesere luso la sukulu ya zachipatala kuchokera ku zochitika za aphunzitsi ndi oyang'anira.Ponseponse, zinthu zomwe zimatchulidwa pafupipafupi zokhudzana ndi kuwunika kwamaphunziro.Chofala kwambiri chinali madandaulo okhudzana ndi kusakwanira kwa njira zowunika momwe ntchito zikuyendera, pomwe omwe adafunsidwa amadandaulanso za SET komanso kusazindikirika kwa kuphunzitsa m'machitidwe amalipiro amaphunziro.Mavuto ena omwe adanenedwa ndi osagwirizana ndi njira zowunikira komanso njira zokwezera m'madipatimenti onse, kusowa kowunika pafupipafupi, komanso kulephera kulumikiza zotsatira zowunika ndi malipiro.
Royal et al (2018) [11] amafotokoza zina mwazolepheretsa kugwiritsa ntchito SET kuwunika maphunziro ndi luso pamapulogalamu azaumoyo m'maphunziro apamwamba.Ofufuza anena kuti SET m'maphunziro apamwamba ikukumana ndi zovuta zosiyanasiyana chifukwa siyingagwiritsidwe ntchito mwachindunji pamapangidwe a maphunziro ndi kuphunzitsa maphunziro m'masukulu azachipatala.Mafunso omwe amafunsidwa kawirikawiri, kuphatikizapo mafunso okhudza mphunzitsi ndi maphunziro, nthawi zambiri amaphatikizidwa kukhala mafunso amodzi, kotero ophunzira nthawi zambiri amavutika kusiyanitsa pakati pawo.Kuphatikiza apo, maphunziro amapulogalamu azachipatala nthawi zambiri amaphunzitsidwa ndi mamembala angapo.Izi zimadzutsa mafunso ovomerezeka chifukwa cha kuchuluka kochepa komwe kumachitika pakati pa ophunzira ndi aphunzitsi omwe amawunikidwa ndi Royal et al.(2018) [11].Mu kafukufuku wa Hwang et al.(2017) [14], ofufuza adafufuza momwe kuwunika kwamaphunziro obwerera m'mbuyo kumawonetsera bwino momwe ophunzira amaonera maphunziro osiyanasiyana a alangizi.Zotsatira zawo zikuwonetsa kuti kuwunika kwa kalasi payekha ndikofunikira pakuwongolera maphunziro am'madipatimenti osiyanasiyana mkati mwa maphunziro ophatikizika akusukulu yachipatala.
Uitdehaage and O'Neill (2015) [5] adawunika momwe ophunzira azachipatala adatengera dala SET m'kalasi yamagulu ambiri.Maphunziro onse awiri a preclinical anali ndi mphunzitsi wopeka.Ophunzira ayenera kupereka mavoti osadziwika kwa alangizi onse (kuphatikiza alangizi abodza) mkati mwa milungu iwiri atamaliza maphunzirowo, koma angakane kumuyesa wophunzitsayo.Chaka chotsatira zidachitikanso, koma chithunzi cha mphunzitsi wopeka chidaphatikizidwa.Ophunzira makumi asanu ndi limodzi mphambu asanu ndi limodzi pa zana adavotera mlangizi weniweni popanda kufanana, koma ophunzira ochepera (49%) adavotera mlangizi wofananayo.Zomwe anapezazi zikusonyeza kuti ophunzira ambiri azachipatala amamaliza ma SET mwakhungu, ngakhale atatsagana ndi zithunzi, osaganizira mozama za omwe akuwunika, osasiyapo ntchito ya mlangizi.Izi zimalepheretsa kuwongolera kwa pulogalamuyo ndipo zitha kuwononga kupita patsogolo kwamaphunziro kwa aphunzitsi.Ofufuzawa akupereka dongosolo lomwe limapereka njira yosiyana kwambiri ndi SET yomwe imagwira nawo ophunzira mwachangu komanso mwachangu.
Pali kusiyana kwina kwamaphunziro amaphunziro azachipatala poyerekeza ndi mapulogalamu ena apamwamba amaphunziro apamwamba [11].Maphunziro a zachipatala, monga maphunziro a zachipatala, amayang'ana kwambiri pa chitukuko cha ntchito zodziwika bwino (zachipatala).Zotsatira zake, maphunziro azachipatala ndi azaumoyo amakhala osasunthika, okhala ndi maphunziro ochepa komanso zosankha zamaphunziro.Chosangalatsa ndichakuti, maphunziro azachipatala nthawi zambiri amaperekedwa m'magulu amagulu, ophunzira onse amatenga maphunziro amodzi nthawi imodzi semesita iliyonse.Choncho, kulembetsa ophunzira ambiri (kawirikawiri n = 100 kapena kuposerapo) kungakhudze maonekedwe a maphunziro komanso ubale wa mphunzitsi ndi wophunzira.Komanso, m'masukulu ambiri azachipatala, zida za psychometric za zida zambiri sizimawunikidwa pakugwiritsa ntchito koyamba, ndipo zida za zida zambiri sizingadziwikebe [11].
Maphunziro angapo pazaka zingapo zapitazi apereka umboni wakuti SET ikhoza kuwongoleredwa poyang'ana zinthu zina zofunika zomwe zingakhudze mphamvu ya SET pazida, zoyang'anira, ndi zomasulira.Chithunzi 3 chikuwonetsa njira zina zomwe zingagwiritsidwe ntchito popanga chitsanzo cha SET chogwira mtima.Magawo otsatirawa akupereka tsatanetsatane watsatanetsatane.
Sinthani SET pazida, zowongolera, ndi zomasulira kuti mupange ma SET aluso.
Monga tanena kale, zolembazo zimatsimikizira kuti kukondera kwa jenda kumatha kukhudza kuwunika kwa aphunzitsi [35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46].Peterson ndi al.(2019) [40] adachita kafukufuku yemwe adawona ngati jenda la ophunzira limakhudza mayankho a ophunzira pakuchepetsa kukondera.Mu kafukufukuyu, SET idaperekedwa m'makalasi anayi (awiri ophunzitsidwa ndi aphunzitsi achimuna ndi awiri ophunzitsidwa ndi aphunzitsi achikazi).M'kati mwa maphunziro aliwonse, ophunzira adapatsidwa mwayi wolandira chida chowunikira kapena chida chomwecho koma kugwiritsa ntchito chinenero chochepetsera kusagwirizana pakati pa amuna ndi akazi.Kafukufukuyu adapeza kuti ophunzira omwe adagwiritsa ntchito zida zowunikira zotsutsana ndi kukondera adapatsa aphunzitsi achikazi apamwamba kwambiri a SET kuposa ophunzira omwe adagwiritsa ntchito zida zowunikira.Komanso, panalibe kusiyana kwa mavoti a aphunzitsi achimuna pakati pa magulu awiriwa.Zotsatira za phunziroli ndizofunika kwambiri ndipo zikuwonetsa momwe chilankhulo chosavuta chingachepetse kukondera pakuwunika kwa ophunzira pakuphunzitsa.Chifukwa chake, ndichizoloŵezi chabwino kuganizira mozama ma SET onse ndikugwiritsa ntchito chilankhulo kuti muchepetse kukondera kwa jenda pakukula kwawo [40].
Kuti mupeze zotsatira zothandiza kuchokera ku SET iliyonse, ndikofunikira kulingalira mosamala cholinga cha kuwunika ndi mawu a mafunsowo pasadakhale.Ngakhale kuti kafukufuku wambiri wa SET amawonetsa bwino gawo la kayendetsedwe ka maphunziro, mwachitsanzo, "Course Evaluation", ndi gawo la faculty, mwachitsanzo, "Kuwunika kwa Mphunzitsi", m'mafukufuku ena kusiyana sikungakhale koonekera, kapena Pakhoza kukhala chisokonezo pakati pa ophunzira. za momwe mungawunikire madera onsewa payekhapayekha.Choncho, mapangidwe a mafunsowa ayenera kukhala oyenera, kufotokozera mbali ziwiri zosiyana za mafunso, ndikudziwitsa ophunzira zomwe ziyenera kuyesedwa m'dera lililonse.Kuphatikiza apo, kuyezetsa koyendetsa ndege kumalimbikitsidwa kuti muwone ngati ophunzira amatanthauzira mafunso m'njira yomwe akufuna [24].Mu kafukufuku wa Oermann et al.(2018) [26], ochita kafukufukuwo adafufuza ndi kupanga zolemba zofotokozera kugwiritsa ntchito SET m'magulu osiyanasiyana a maphunziro a undergraduate ndi omaliza maphunziro kuti apatse aphunzitsi malangizo okhudza kugwiritsa ntchito SET mu unamwino ndi mapulogalamu ena a zaumoyo.Zotsatira zimasonyeza kuti zida za SET ziyenera kuyesedwa musanagwiritse ntchito, kuphatikizapo kuyesa zida zoyendetsa ndege ndi ophunzira omwe sangathe kutanthauzira zida za SET kapena mafunso monga momwe wophunzitsirayo akufunira.
Kafukufuku wambiri wawunika ngati kuwongolera kwa SET kumakhudza zomwe ophunzira akuchita.
Daumier ndi al.(2004) [47] anayerekeza mavoti a ophunzira a maphunziro a aphunzitsi omwe amamalizidwa m'kalasi ndi mavoti omwe amasonkhanitsidwa pa intaneti poyerekezera kuchuluka kwa mayankho ndi mavoti.Kafukufuku akuwonetsa kuti kafukufuku wapa intaneti nthawi zambiri amakhala ndi mayankho otsika kuposa omwe amafunsidwa m'kalasi.Komabe, kafukufukuyu adapeza kuti kuwunika kwapaintaneti sikunapange magiredi osiyana kwambiri ndi mayeso apasukulu achikhalidwe.
Panali malipoti oti palibe njira ziwiri zoyankhulirana pakati pa ophunzira ndi aphunzitsi pomaliza ma SETI a pa intaneti (koma osindikizidwa nthawi zambiri), zomwe zimapangitsa kuti pasakhale mwayi wofotokozera.Chifukwa chake, tanthauzo la mafunso a SET, ndemanga, kapena kuwunika kwa ophunzira sizingakhale zomveka [48].Mabungwe ena athana ndi nkhaniyi pobweretsa ophunzira pamodzi kwa ola limodzi ndikupatula nthawi yoti amalize SET pa intaneti (mosadziwika) [49].M'maphunziro awo, Malone et al.(2018) [49] adakhala ndi misonkhano ingapo kuti akambirane ndi ophunzira cholinga cha SET, omwe angawone zotsatira za SET ndi momwe zotsatira zake zidzagwiritsire ntchito, ndi zina zilizonse zomwe ophunzira adalemba.SET imachitika ngati gulu loyang'ana kwambiri: gulu lonse limayankha mafunso opanda mayankho kudzera mu kuvota, mkangano, ndi kuwunikira.Kuyankha kunali kopitilira 70-80%, kupatsa aphunzitsi, olamulira, ndi makomiti amaphunziro azidziwitso zambiri [49].
Monga tafotokozera pamwambapa, mu phunziro la Uitdehaage ndi O'Neill [5], ofufuzawo adanena kuti ophunzira mu phunziro lawo adavotera aphunzitsi omwe sanalipo.Monga tanenera poyamba paja, ili ndi vuto lofala m’masukulu a zachipatala, kumene kosi iliyonse ingaphunzitsidwe ndi mamembala ambiri a faculty, koma ophunzira sangakumbukire amene anathandizira nawo ku kosi iliyonse kapena zimene membala wa faculty aliyense anachita.Mabungwe ena athana ndi nkhaniyi popereka chithunzi cha mphunzitsi aliyense, dzina lake, ndi mutu/tsiku lomwe laperekedwa kuti litsitsimutse kukumbukira kwa ophunzira ndikupewa zovuta zomwe zingasokoneze kugwira ntchito kwa SET [49].
Mwina vuto lofunika kwambiri lokhudzana ndi SET ndiloti aphunzitsi amalephera kutanthauzira molondola zotsatira za SET zochulukira komanso zabwino.Aphunzitsi ena angafune kufananitsa ziwerengero m'zaka zonse, ena angaone kuwonjezeka kwakung'ono / kuchepa kwa chiwerengero monga kusintha kwatanthauzo, ena amafuna kukhulupirira kafukufuku uliwonse, ndipo ena amakayikira kwambiri kafukufuku uliwonse [45,50, 51].
Kulephera kutanthauzira molondola zotsatira kapena kukonza mayankho a ophunzira kungasokoneze malingaliro a aphunzitsi pa kuphunzitsa.Zotsatira za Lutovac et al.(2017) [52] Maphunziro othandizira aphunzitsi ndi ofunikira komanso opindulitsa popereka ndemanga kwa ophunzira.Maphunziro azachipatala amafunikira mwachangu kuphunzitsidwa kutanthauzira kolondola kwa zotsatira za SET.Chifukwa chake, aphunzitsi amasukulu azachipatala akuyenera kuphunzitsidwa momwe angawunikire zotulukapo komanso magawo ofunikira omwe ayenera kuyang'ana [50, 51].
Choncho, zotsatira zomwe zafotokozedwa zikusonyeza kuti ma SET ayenera kupangidwa mosamala, kuyendetsedwa, ndi kutanthauziridwa kuti zitsimikizire kuti zotsatira za SET zimakhala ndi zotsatira zabwino kwa onse okhudzidwa, kuphatikizapo aphunzitsi, oyang'anira sukulu zachipatala, ndi ophunzira.
Chifukwa cha zofooka zina za SET, tiyenera kupitiriza kuyesetsa kupanga ndondomeko yowunikira kuti tichepetse kukondera pakuphunzitsa bwino ndikuthandizira chitukuko cha akatswiri a zachipatala.
Kumvetsetsa kokwanira bwino kwaukadaulo wophunzitsira zachipatala kumatha kupezedwa mwa kusonkhanitsa ndi kuwongolera deta kuchokera kumagwero angapo, kuphatikiza ophunzira, anzawo, oyang'anira mapulogalamu, komanso kudziyesa okha kwa aphunzitsi [53, 54, 55, 56, 57].Magawo otsatirawa akufotokoza zotheka zida / njira zina zomwe zingagwiritsidwe ntchito kuwonjezera pa SET yogwira mtima kuti zithandize kumvetsetsa bwino komanso kumvetsetsa bwino kwa maphunziro (Chithunzi 4).
Njira zomwe zingagwiritsidwe ntchito popanga chitsanzo chokwanira cha dongosolo lowunika momwe ntchito yophunzitsira ikuyendera pasukulu ya zamankhwala.
Gulu loyang'ana kwambiri limatanthauzidwa ngati "kukambirana kwamagulu komwe kumakonzedwa kuti afufuze nkhani zinazake" [58].Pazaka zingapo zapitazi, masukulu azachipatala apanga magulu owunikira kuti apeze mayankho abwino kuchokera kwa ophunzira ndikuthana ndi zovuta zina za SET pa intaneti.Maphunzirowa akuwonetsa kuti magulu omwe amawunikira amakhala othandiza popereka mayankho abwino komanso kukulitsa kukhutira kwa ophunzira [59, 60, 61].
Mu kafukufuku wa Brundle et al.[59] Ofufuzawo adakhazikitsa njira yowunikira ophunzira yomwe idalola owongolera maphunziro ndi ophunzira kuti akambirane maphunziro omwe ali m'magulu.Zotsatira zikuwonetsa kuti zokambirana zamagulu okhazikika zimakwaniritsa zowunika zapaintaneti ndikuwonjezera kukhutira kwa ophunzira ndi njira yonse yowunika maphunziro.Ophunzira amayamikira mwayi wolankhulana mwachindunji ndi otsogolera maphunziro ndipo amakhulupirira kuti njirayi ingathandize kuti maphunziro apite patsogolo.Anaonanso kuti anatha kumvetsa maganizo a wotsogolera maphunzirowo.Kuphatikiza pa ophunzira, oyang'anira maphunziro adawonanso kuti magulu omwe amayang'ana kwambiri amathandizira kulumikizana bwino ndi ophunzira [59].Chifukwa chake, kugwiritsa ntchito magulu omwe akuwunikira kutha kupatsa masukulu azachipatala kumvetsetsa kokwanira kwa maphunziro aliwonse komanso luso la kuphunzitsa kwa gulu lomwe likukhudzidwa.Komabe, ziyenera kudziwidwa kuti magulu omwe amayang'ana nawo pawokha ali ndi malire, monga owerengeka ochepa chabe a ophunzira omwe akutenga nawo gawo poyerekeza ndi pulogalamu yapaintaneti ya SET, yomwe imapezeka kwa ophunzira onse.Kuphatikiza apo, kupanga magulu owunikira maphunziro osiyanasiyana kumatha kukhala njira yotengera nthawi kwa alangizi ndi ophunzira.Izi zimakhala ndi malire, makamaka kwa ophunzira azachipatala omwe amakhala otanganidwa kwambiri ndipo amatha kupita kumalo osiyanasiyana azachipatala.Kuphatikiza apo, magulu owunikira amafunikira otsogolera odziwa zambiri.Komabe, kuphatikizira magulu owunikira pakuwunika kungapereke zambiri mwatsatanetsatane komanso zatsatanetsatane za momwe maphunziro amathandizira [48, 59, 60, 61].
Schiekierka-Schwacke et al.(2018) [62] adawunika malingaliro a ophunzira ndi aphunzitsi a chida chatsopano chowunika momwe aphunzitsi amagwirira ntchito komanso zotsatira zamaphunziro a ophunzira m'masukulu awiri azachipatala aku Germany.Zokambirana zamagulu okhazikika komanso zoyankhulana paokha zidachitika ndi aphunzitsi ndi ophunzira azachipatala.Aphunzitsi anayamikira ndemanga yaumwini yoperekedwa ndi chida chowunikira, ndipo ophunzira adanena kuti ndondomeko yobwerezabwereza, kuphatikizapo zolinga ndi zotsatira zake, ziyenera kupangidwa kuti zilimbikitse kupereka lipoti la deta.Choncho, zotsatira za phunziroli zimathandizira kufunikira kotseka njira yolumikizirana ndi ophunzira ndikuwadziwitsa za zotsatira zowunika.
Mapulogalamu a Peer Review of Teaching (PRT) ndi ofunika kwambiri ndipo akhala akugwiritsidwa ntchito mu maphunziro apamwamba kwa zaka zambiri.PRT imaphatikizapo njira yogwirizanirana yoyang'anira kuphunzitsa ndikupereka ndemanga kwa wowonera kuti athandizire kuphunzitsa bwino [63].Kuphatikiza apo, kuchita masewera olimbitsa thupi, zokambirana zotsatiridwa mokhazikika, komanso kugawa mwadongosolo kwa anzawo ophunzitsidwa bwino kungathandize kukonza bwino kwa PRT ndi chikhalidwe cha kuphunzitsa cha dipatimentiyi [64].Mapulogalamuwa akunenedwa kuti ali ndi ubwino wambiri chifukwa amatha kuthandiza aphunzitsi kulandira ndemanga zolimbikitsa kuchokera kwa aphunzitsi anzawo omwe angakhalepo ndi zovuta zofanana m'mbuyomo ndipo angapereke chithandizo chochulukirapo popereka malingaliro othandiza kuti apite patsogolo [63].Kuphatikiza apo, ikagwiritsidwa ntchito moyenera, kuwunikira anzawo kumatha kukonza zomwe zili mumaphunziro ndi njira zoperekera, ndikuthandizira aphunzitsi azachipatala kupititsa patsogolo maphunziro awo [65, 66].
Kafukufuku waposachedwa ndi Campbell et al.(2019) [67] amapereka umboni wakuti chitsanzo chothandizira anzawo kuntchito ndi njira yovomerezeka komanso yothandiza yopititsa patsogolo aphunzitsi kwa aphunzitsi azachipatala.Mu phunziro lina, Caygill et al.[68] adachita kafukufuku momwe mafunso opangidwa mwapadera adatumizidwa kwa aphunzitsi azaumoyo ku yunivesite ya Melbourne kuti awalole kugawana zomwe adakumana nazo pogwiritsa ntchito PRT.Zotsatirazi zikuwonetsa kuti pali chidwi chokhazikika mu PRT pakati pa aphunzitsi azachipatala komanso kuti mawonekedwe odzifunira komanso odziwitsa anzawo amawonedwa ngati mwayi wofunikira komanso wofunikira wa chitukuko cha akatswiri.
Ndizofunikira kudziwa kuti mapulogalamu a PRT amayenera kupangidwa mosamala kuti asapange malo oweruza, "oyang'anira" omwe nthawi zambiri amabweretsa nkhawa pakati pa aphunzitsi omwe amawonedwa [69].Choncho, cholinga chiyenera kukhala kupanga mosamala mapulani a PRT omwe angagwirizane ndi kuthandizira kupanga malo otetezeka ndikupereka ndemanga zolimbikitsa.Choncho, maphunziro apadera amafunikira kuti aphunzitse obwereza, ndipo mapulogalamu a PRT ayenera kukhala ndi aphunzitsi achidwi komanso odziwa zambiri.Izi ndizofunikira makamaka ngati chidziwitso chopezedwa kuchokera ku PRT chikugwiritsidwa ntchito pazisankho za aphunzitsi monga kukwezedwa kumagulu apamwamba, kukweza malipiro, ndi kukwezedwa ku maudindo ofunikira.Tiyenera kuzindikira kuti PRT ndi nthawi yambiri ndipo, monga magulu okhudzidwa, amafunikira kutenga nawo mbali kwa mamembala ambiri odziwa zambiri, zomwe zimapangitsa kuti njirayi ikhale yovuta kuigwiritsa ntchito m'masukulu a zachipatala omwe alibe zipangizo zochepa.
Newman et al.(2019) [70] fotokozani njira zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito zisanachitike, panthawi komanso pambuyo pa maphunziro, zowonera zomwe zimawonetsa machitidwe abwino ndikuzindikira njira zothetsera mavuto ophunzirira.Ofufuzawo anapereka malingaliro a 12 kwa obwereza, kuphatikizapo: (1) sankhani mawu anu mwanzeru;(2) kulola wowonerayo kuti adziwe malangizo a zokambirana;(3) sungani ndemanga zanu mwachinsinsi komanso zosinthidwa;(4) sungani ndemanga zanu mwachinsinsi komanso zosinthidwa;Ndemanga zimayang'ana pa luso la kuphunzitsa osati mphunzitsi payekha;(5) Dziŵitsani anzanu anzako (6) Muzidziganizira inuyo ndiponso anthu ena (7) Kumbukirani kuti mloŵa wamalowo umagwira ntchito yofunika kwambiri popereka ndemanga, (8) Gwiritsirani ntchito mafunso kuti mumveketse kaphunzitsidwe kake, (10) Khazikitsani kukhulupirirana. ndi ndemanga pazowonera anzawo, (11) perekani chidwi cha kuphunzira kupambana, (12) pangani dongosolo loti muchitepo kanthu.Ochita kafukufuku akuwunikanso zotsatira za kukondera pazowunikira komanso momwe njira yophunzirira, kuyang'anira ndi kukambirana zomwe zingawathandize kuperekera zokumana nazo zofunikira pakuphunzira kwa onse awiri, zomwe zimapangitsa kuti pakhale mgwirizano wautali komanso kupititsa patsogolo maphunziro.Gomaly et al.(2014) [71] inanena kuti ubwino wa mayankho ogwira mtima uyenera kuphatikizapo (1) kufotokozera ntchitoyo popereka malangizo, (2) kuwonjezereka kolimbikitsa kulimbikitsa kuyesetsa kwakukulu, ndi (3) malingaliro a wolandirayo ngati njira yofunikira.zoperekedwa ndi gwero lodalirika.
Ngakhale aphunzitsi akusukulu ya zamankhwala amalandila ndemanga pa PRT, ndikofunikira kuphunzitsa aphunzitsi momwe angatanthauzire mayankho (ofanana ndi malingaliro oti alandire maphunziro a kutanthauzira kwa SET) ndikulola aphunzitsi nthawi yokwanira kuti aganizire mozama zomwe alandila.
Nthawi yotumiza: Nov-24-2023